The Importance of Values and Principles

Warren Bennis has written “Integrity is the essential ingredient of successful leaders....In picking a leader, insist on integrity.”  Values and principles are the basis for your integrity. When the dictionary defines “integrity” as related to a person, it says: “Firm adherence to a code of esp. moral ... values.”  As Kim Cameron has pointed out, “Integrity requires maintaining unfailing values and principles….” Bill George and Peter E. Sims say that “Leadership is best practiced when leaders stay true to their own principles, values, beliefs.”

But, as Colbert R. King, a former Army Officer, former Senate Staffer and, a Columnist for the Washington Post  has said:

Of course, it's easier to talk about maintaining one’s values and integrity than to actually do it. The temptation to cut corners is always there. It never goes away. But at bottom, resisting shortcuts and remaining faithful to the fundamentals of work and human relations are essential to the public trust....

Clearly, from those cautionary words, maintaining one’s integrity is a life-long, daily effort.  But, maintaining one’s integrity is not the final goal of that effort.  The goal is becoming a person of character. As you always resist shortcuts and remain faithful to the fundamentals of work and human  relations and to the public trust you not only maintain your integrity but you start to build your character as a person.

There is a difference between maintaining one’s integrity and being a person of character.  Felicia Mainella has reviewed a wide range of theoretical and practical research and writings on “character and leadership” from Aristotle to modern day thinkers.  She found that:

The most consistent use of the word character in the literature centers around the ethical sense of an individual in relation to who they are deep down in their essence and focuses on how consistent an individual’s behavior is to a set of sound ethical values.

Thus, she concludes that

…the most common misuse of [the concept and word] character is to use it interchangeably with personality….  Personality traits [such as integrity] assist in explaining who a person is and could become, but character takes personality much deeper by showing who a person is after all that is superficial and exterior has been stripped away….A person of character is someone who is continually developing virtues to the extent that the virtues become ingrained in who the person is at all times.

But, no one is perfect as Shakespeare wrote:

Roses have thorns and silver fountains mud,

Clouds and eclipses stain both moon and sun,

And loathsome canker lives in sweetest bud.

All men make faults.

Thus, James Toner, Professor of Leadership and Ethics at the Air War College describes the difficulty of making the effort and achieving the goal.

The honorable person is one who tries throughout life to know and to do the virtuous thing. The man of honor, if he be truly honest with himself, will admit to failure-perhaps even grievous failure, but because he is inviolably fixed on true faith and allegiance to a sense of obligation outside his own skin, he returns to a path of integrity. Character in the end, is not about never failing; it is about never quitting in the task of finally knowing the right and consistently doing it.

  Indeed, Senator John McCain believes that “character is destiny”.  He has written:

… stories of remarkable people who chose well.  Most are people of remarkably good character.  All, no doubt, had flaws….I would be proud to be among their number ….The best I can claim for my own character is that it is still a work in progress.  The most important thing I have learned….is to want what they had, integrity, and to feel the sting of conscience when I have chosen a path that has risked it for some selfish reason….I’m still working on my character, although I am sixty-eight years old as I write this.

How does one go about becoming a person of character?  Joseph L. Badarroco, who has interviewed and studied leaders, finds that those who are most satisfied with the way they resolve their defining moments are those who:

…are able to take time out from the chain of managerial tasks that consumes their time and undertake a process of probing self-inquiry—a process that is more often carried out on the run than in quiet seclusion.  They are able to dig below the busy surface of their daily lives and refocus on their core values and principles.  Once uncovered, those values and principles renew their sense of purpose at work….By repeating this process again and again throughout their work lives, these executives are able to craft an authentic and strong identity based on their own, rather than someone else’s, understanding of what is right. And, in this way, they begin to make the transition from being a manager to becoming a leader.  

The Importance of Character

While maintaining your integrity and demonstrating it everyday on the job for your followers to see will support your Leadership of the organization on a daily basis, it is your character that will insure your Leadership is successful over the long run when the chips are down in an ethical crisis. The first of the “Seven Lessons of Leadership” given by James Kouzes and Barry Posner is that “Character Counts”.  Thus, as Frances Hesselbein emphasizes “The leader for today and the future will be focused on how to be—how to develop character, mindsets, values, principles and courage.”

But those who aspired to be great Leaders have always been focused on how to develop their character.  As an example consider what historian David Hackett Fischer has said about Leaders who he has studied:

 The philosophy that Washington learned…was a philosophy of moral striving through virtuous action and right conduct, by powerful men who believed that their duty was to lead others in a changing world.  Most of all it was a way of combining power with responsibility, and liberty with discipline.

He also concluded that Douglas Southall Freeman’s biographies of R.E. Lee and George
Washington

…are studies of character in action and leadership in the flow of events….Eisenhower, Nimitz and Marshall all read Freeman’s books, corresponded with him and visited his Richmond home.  All of these leaders modeled their actions on what they took to be Freeman’s idea of leadership as character….The special quality of American leadership in the Second World War owed much to the idea of leadership as character that was personified by Freeman’s Lee and Freeman’s Washington.

 As John C. Maxwell says, “Your character qualities activate and empower your leadership ability—or stand in the way of your success.” General  H. Norman Schwarzkopf USA (Ret) agrees:

By far the most single important ingredient of leadership is your character....You will find that 99% of all leadership failures in this country in the past 100 years were not failures in competence; they were failures in character...Leadership involves morality and, indeed, leadership involves integrity, and that is why character counts in leadership.  

Noel M. Tichy and Warren Bennis ask and answer:

What does it mean to have character?  It means having values.  It means having a moral compass that sets clear parameters for what one will and will not do.  Character is all about knowing right from wrong and having worked these issues out long before tough judgment calls.  It is about knowing what your goals and standards are and sticking to them….Character also means putting the greater good of the organization or society ahead of self interest…Having the courage to act on your standards….

How to Start Building Your Character

To start the journey from integrity to character:

• You must get your priorities as a person, Leader and professional in order.
• Then develop some shorthand guidelines for action based on those priorities.
• And, finally, make acting on those guidelines a habit.

The words “priorities” and “guidelines” are practical words that we all use frequently and understand. But, what they mean in this context are “values” and “principles”.  “Get your priorities in order” means that you must clarify and categorize your values as a person, as a professional, and as a Leader and establish their relationships to each other so that you know which are the most important to you and which are more important than others for you Leadership.   “Develop some shorthand guidelines for action” means develop a set of principles that reflect your values and which you will use to guide your actions. Then, make acting in accordance with those values and guided by those principles a habit.

This advice is not new. It is, as Benjamin Franklin recounts in his Autobiography, exactly what he did as a young man.

I included under thirteen names of virtues [values] all that at that time occurr’d to me as necessary or desirable and annexed to each a short precept [principle].... my intention being to acquire the habitude of all these virtues

The Three Categories of Values 

Personal Values: When reflecting on your values as a person, you might want to consider:

The three theological virtues:

• Faith
• Hope
• Charity 

The four cardinal virtues as stated by the Greek philosophers, Socrates via his pupil Plato and Plato via his pupil Aristotle.

• Courage or Fortitude
• Prudence or Wisdom or Judgment
• Temperance or Moderation
• Justice

It was Aristotle who said that the purpose of acquiring these virtues was to gain  “eudaimonia” which has often been translated as “happiness”.  But the meaning of the word is more closely translated as “human flourishing” or “the well-lived life” or a worthwhile life.   Aristotle considered a well-lived life to be the “contemplative life” and an “active life”.  Later the Greek philosopher Epicurus suggested that a well-live life might be a “hedonistic life”.  The Roman stoic Philosopher Epictetus suggested a “fataliistic life” might be more appropriate.  These later philosophies don’t seem to be appropriate guide for an intelligence or national security professional, although Admiral James Stockdale believed that it was the teachings of Epictetus that he had studied at Stanford that served him well during his years imprisoned by the North Vietnamese in the “Hanoi Hilton”.    

Benjamin Franklin listed:

• Temperance, Silence, Order, Resolution, Frugality, Industry, Sincerity, Justice, Moderation, Cleanliness, Tranquility.

Stephen R. Covey lists what he calls “character ethics”:

•  Integrity, Humility, Fidelity, Temperance, Courage, Justice, Patience, Industry, Simplicity, Modesty.

All of these are the virtues that allow you to build your character as a person and have a “well-lived life” that will provide you with self-respect. According to one of those daily calendars, there is an anonymous saying that “Self-respect is the cornerstone of all virtue.”  If your character is not good enough that you can look your self in the mirror and respect the person you see, it is not good enough for anyone else to respect you as a person of character or as a Leader.

Leadership Values:

When choosing your values for living with others and as a Leader in the family or among friends and especially in an intelligence or national security leadership position you need to display the all cardinal virtues to insure your integrity and demonstrate that you are a person of character. But, Leadership is a role beyond just being a person, even a person of character.  Leadership involves having power over other people.         In that role, both Aristotle and the advocate of his philosophy among the Romans, Cicero, emphasized Justice as the most important virtue. 

Cicero was a great Roman general, statesman, public servant, Leader and philosopher. In his book On Duties, he expanded on the four cardinal virtues and, in so doing, emphasized some specific aspects of each that intelligence professional Leaders would do well to note: 

• Wisdom—including “the search after truth and its discovery”.
• Justice—including “no harm be done”, “the common interests be preserved”, “impartiality”, “mercy”, “equity”, “good faith”, “fidelity to promises”, “lack of hypocrisy”, “treatment according to merit”, “kindness”, and “citizenship”, “love of country”..
• Fortitude—including “bravery and courage”, “moral courage”, “perseverance”, “patriotism and self sacrifice”, “patience”,  “humility”.
• Temperance— “the right thing at the right time”, “decorum”, “propriety”, “self-control”, “consistency”, “modesty”, “moderation in appearance and speech”.

Cicero, in the dedication of that book to his son, said:

And what do I mean by the good life [referring to Aristotle’s “eudaimonia”], my son? I mean that you live a life that gives back to your country, gives back to your family, gives back to your fellow-citizens….So I have tried, in my life, to follow the moral course.  

In later years, the philosopher Immanuel Kant emphasized individual rights and not using others as means to your ends.  He believed that each person had intellectual and moral autonomy or the “self-governing reason” and “free will” to choose how to act, he believed that each person is also “possessed of equal worth and deserving of equal respect”.  Thus, he argued each person has a moral responsibility to act as they would want everyone else in society to act.  He believed that if a person expected others to have the virtues expected of them, then it was a “categorical imperative” or “duty” to have them oneself. He took a rule-based approach—if something is wrong, it is always wrong.   He recognized how hard it was to follow that rule but said that if it were not hard then it would not be a virtue.

The military service “core values” fall into this category of “rule-based” values for military Leaders at all levels

Professional Values:

Finally, as you live, work and Lead in an organization you need to maintain  professional values.  As military personnel and intelligence professionals, you have taken an additional responsibilities because you are living in an organization. Your conduct and actions have consequences, not only for the people with whom you work and Lead, but for the success of the organization and the security of the nation.  Thus, in addition to the “core values”, the military services list other traits or values they desire in the members of their organization: “Commitment”, “Energy”, “Initiative”, “Enthusiasm”, “Endurance”, “Bearing”.  Of course, though unstated, the military services also want their members to value:  adherence to lawful orders and maintaining good order and discipline.  Likewise, various intelligence agencies list the “values” that they desire their employees to have.  In addition to the “core traits”, others are:  “Service”, “Dedication”, “Commitment”, “Customer Focus”,  “Accountability”, “Collaboration”,  “Teamwork”, and of course, “Leadership”.

To see full military lists, go here_____. 

For intelligence agency lists, go here_____.

And, there is no doubt that, as professionals we value recognition, success, financial rewards, organizational acceptance, etc.  But, it is these professional values, personally legitimate as they are, that often cause the greatest problems if they become too important to us and become distorted—i.e., if the desire for recognition and success brings careerism, or if dedication turns into being a workaholic, or if organizational loyalty becomes parochialism. 

Reviewing and Prioritizing Your Values     

You might want to review all these values and consider which ones are appropriate for you and consider how you would prioritize them so that you assure that you lead your personal life the way you desire so that you achieve happiness, fulfill your duty to be the kind of employee and Leader that it is your duty to be and so that you achieve the professional success that you desire. Which are most important to you as a person, as a Leader, as a member of your organization?  Only you can decide the values that you want to live, Lead and work by.

Why prioritize?  As Cicero said:

...moral duties are derived from the four divisions of moral rectitude [the cardinal virtues]. But, between these very actions which are morally right, a conflict and comparison may frequently arise, as to which of the two actions is morally better...

He specifically describes the issue of sometimes having to decide between Justice versus Wisdom or Justice versus Temperance and comes down on the side of Justice. But, you’ll have to decide for yourself.

-Certainly, as an intelligence collector faced with the need to take action to fulfill a critical collection requirement, you value both Prudence to play it safe but also the need to have the Courage to take reasonable risks.  But which do you value more highly?  Someday you may have to decide. Think about it now. You may not have enough time then.
-Clearly as a senior analyst, when providing critiques of the work of those in your group and guidance for improvement, Moderation is a good idea, but when it comes to providing inputs for their annual evaluation, does damning with faint praise do Justice to the person or the organization? You have to do this several times each year, do you think about a conflict between  your personal commitment to Honesty and your Duty to the organization?

On a more mundane level, Michael S. Kimmel points out: “These are moments when there’s a clash between two conflicting values connected to masculinity, No. 1, you always do the right thing. And the second is you never betray your friends.” 

-When you observe a legal or ethical failure in the organization will you value your personal Honesty to report it or verify it when asked by an investigator or will you value Loyalty to a friend, the boss or the organization higher and keep it to yourself?

As a Leader, frequently you will be functioning across all three categories; trying to be a good person while taking care of your subordinates in a professional situation.  Which is most important to you, your values as a person, your values as a Leader, or your values as a professional?  After describing the three sources of peoples’ moral obligation, as: “our own moral values, societal ethics, and organizational ethics”, Joseph Nye, based on his experience as an intelligence and national security Leader, points out that “Leaders are subject to all three, and these sources of moral obligation are frequently in tension with each other.”  Thus, he  reminds students that:

Ethical leaders use their consciences, common moral rules and professional standards, but conflicting values can create “dirty hands.”  Three dimensional ethical judgments require attention to goals, means and consequences….  

In this case, of deciding between your ethically-based personal values, your duty-based values as a Leader or your consequence-based values as a professional, some people and organizations have made recommendations.

For example, General Douglas MacArthur spoke of : “Duty, Honor, Country”. Was that intended as a   prioritization? Is it an appropriate prioritization? That is a topic which has been debated in Parameters, the journal of the Army War College. In his writings, James Toner advocates: “Principle, Purpose, People”.  Do you agree with that as a priority? He clearly means it as a priority. He says;

...for the military leader, concern for troops cannot replace devotion to duty; and devotion to duty cannot replace fidelity to a high sense of honor. The trinity of  principle, purpose, people thus complements the idea of honor, duty, country(men).  The highest obligation of a soldier must be to honor, then to duty, and then to countrymen.  If any leader mistakes the proper order—putting say people ahead of principle....he or she cannot inspire appropriate conduct.  The leadership offered will be defective and dangerous.

In training, the Army teaches “Men, Mission, Me”. Presumably, that is intended as a prioritization for their guidance.  Likewise, the Navy often says tells sailors “Ship, Shipmate, Self”.

Note that, in each case, the word order that reflects the priority of values as a person, a Leader, and a professional differ.  Which would you choose?  Think about it, someday you will probably have to take an action that will require you to choose between maintaining your personal honor, taking care of your people or accomplishing the mission.  Better to have thought about it in advance. 

Joseph L. Badarocco highlights that there will be a such a “defining moment” when Leaders must choose between two or more ideals in which they believe deeply.  He says that to make that decision, we must first define who we are, then decide what our truth is.  He notes that the art of reflection is key to doing so and that is a precious commodity that is elusive in today's hectic fast paced world.  Thus, you should take some time now to reflect on your values and the need to prioritize them as you prepare for Leadership.  .

That reflection is important, because as Ed Ruggero and Dennis F. Haley point out:

Successful leaders know their Personal Leadership Philosophy (PLP) and communicate it by living it passionately everyday in all they say and do. They have taken the time to determine who they are, their values and priorities....
This is accomplished by writing a Personal Leadership Philosophy, which states the core values you live by, what you will expect of your people, what they can expect of you, and how you will evaluate performance. Writing your PLP is not an easy exercise....

No matter how you go about it, you must set some value priorities now or soon. Remember, you are doing this to start building your Character.   As you live your life, you won’t always have the time  to be always be reflecting on your values and their priority to you. Secondly, if you are constantly reflecting, you will tend to be constantly revising your priorities to fit the situation or mood in which you find yourself. That is because, while values are very personal and emotional, you will be looking for a socially acceptable and intellectual way of responding to the circumstances or situation in which you find yourself. As you start doing that, however, you can easily fall prey to one of the philosophies that can get you into serious trouble. Dawn-Marie Driscoll, W. Michael Hoffman and Edward Petry, identify these philosophies as:

-Relativism-The denial of ethical absolutes.

-- It'll be ok, because its just a matter of opinion anyway.

-Pragmatism-The belief that something is right if it works.

--Lets just get it done and worry about the niceties later.

-Positivism-The process of equating knowledge with observable experience.

--It's ok, because I see people do it all the time.

-Behaviorism-The interpretation of human action as totally determined and predictable.

--Its not my fault, that's just the way I am.

So, don't look for a rationale for your everyday decisions and actions. Go with your prioritized values. If you are always changing your priorities, it will become apparent in your behavior and actions. You will be seen as unsure of your personal beliefs, as a person who is inconsistent, vacillates in making choices, gives in to pressure. You will be seen as a person who does not have integrity, even if you do, or are trying to. Remember, it is your behavior, your actions that others see and what they judge you by. Your behavior is the visible manifestation of your values, it defines your Character. It is by seeing your consistent behavior that your organization will come to trust and follow you. When it comes to integrity and character: “Actions speak louder than words!”

Thus, your values—your basis for deciding right from wrong, good from bad—i.e., your morals or your “personal ethics” or your “character ethics”, if you prefer those terms—should be prioritized now and should remain generally fixed and constant, at least for the current stage of your life and career. Certainly, major life changes may cause some shifts in priority—for example, marriage and children may raise the priority of family, ascending to a leadership position may raise the priority of caring for subordinates, taking an oath of office may raise the priority of organizational loyalty. Likewise, major events can cause people to reprioritze their values.  It is clear that 9/11 got a lot of people to raise the priority of family over career or patriotism over profit.  But, certainly, your values should not be relative on a  day-to-day or, even, year-to-year basis.

Prioritize your values. Which are most important to you as a person, Leader, professional?

Once you have prioritized your specific values, to insure that you adhere to them consistently, you need to come up with some shorthand way of guiding your behavior and actions in accordance with those values, but without constantly reviewing them. You must develop a set of principles to act on and to Lead by which reflect your personal, leadership and professional values.

Principles

To repeat:

        -Principles...influence one...to some course of action...the source, basis of action.

        -Principles...a fundamental doctrine or assumption.  A rule or code of conduct.

In addition, a “principled” person is “...actuated by moral considerations, devoted to rectitude, upright, honorable.” 

In short, as Bill George says “Principles are values translated into action.”

Just as you have acquired and adapted your values from your family, your religion, your culture, your education, Service Core Values and the suggestions of others, you can find principles that reflect those values in those same places.

-Your grandfather, mother or father may have had a “pet phrase” that reflected the values they taught you—for example: "If you can’t say something good about a person, don’t say anything at all". Think back, what did you constantly hear as a child? Are they shorthand guidelines—i.e., principles—that reflect values you have retained and which you can use to guide your actions?
-Of course, all the great religions have been concerned with moral values and have provided principles that reflect those values and can be used as guidance for action—the Ten Commandments or the parables of Jesus for example.
-Philosophers have long been concerned with social values and their writings provide a wealth of principles that can be used as guidance for action. Admiral Stockdale says he found the  principles that served him so well in captivity in North Viet Nam in his earlier study of the writings of the Greek stoic philosopher Epictetus. You should read widely in all of that literature to identify specific principles that work for you—those which reflect your personal values, leadership values and professional values.

-The philosophers of the eighteenth century Enlightenment set forth a number of principles that influenced the Founding Fathers of the United States, some of which are enshrined in our Declaration of Independence, Constitution and Bill of Rights. You would do well to reflect on those principles that you are sworn to uphold. 
-Today, a wide variety of authors have been producing leadership books in which they derive principles based on the lives and works of national Leaders, business tycoons and sports figures. Many contain principles for Leadership derived from the life and actions of the Leader.  For example, Donald Phillips book Lincoln on Leadership  summarizes each chapter with “Lincoln’s Principles”.  

As a prime example, today one cannot talk about Leadership and principles without mentioning someone who is quite popular: Stephen R. Covey. In 1996, Time magazine called him one of the 25 most influential Americans of our time. He as been invited to be speak at the White House and to Congress. His two books The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People and Principle-Centered Leadership have been on the bestseller lists for years. A survey chose Seven Habits  as the most influential book of the 20th Century.  It has sold over 15 million copies and, at last report, was still selling over 50,000 copies each month.  The audio-book is said to be the best selling audio-book in history.  He runs day-long seminars for hundreds and week-long courses for many. Covey preaches Leadership based on values and principles. He does so with sincerity, fervor, practical examples and lots of aphorisms—i.e., terse statements embodying general truths. That makes taking one of his seminars an interesting and stimulating experience. One certainly leaves feeling inspired to be a more principled Leader and committed to making a habit of doing that. Unfortunately, sometimes that inspiration and commitment doesn’t persist, even at the level of the White House or Congress. Nevertheless, Covey’s premise is the right one. Leadership should be based on values and principles. So, it is worth discussing some of his ideas and considering some of his recommendations.

Covey says that “principles are universal laws or fundamental truths which exist independently of our knowledge or acceptance of them.” He goes further and says that they are “self-evident, self-validating natural laws”. He explains that “principles are not invented by us or by society; they are the laws of the universe that pertain to human relationships and human organizations.”

By this formulation of principles as natural laws, Covey continues the stream of philosophy that began with Cicero who coined the term “natural law”, which was then picked up by religious thinkers and, for example, cited in the letter of St. Paul to the Romans, further developed by St. Augustine in the 4th Century and by St Thomas Aquinas in the 13th.  While Martin Luther explicitly repudiated natural moral law, it was still a strong force among the philosophers of the eighteenth century Enlightenment and our Founding Fathers .    

Clearly, Covey thinks of principles just like the laws of physics. One example he uses is magnetic fields. Another example might be gravity. They affect the results of our actions whether we understand them or not, and whether we accept them as valid or not. If, in our actions, we try to violate them, we won’t succeed in what we are trying to do. He seems to feel that, just as scientists have discovered the natural laws that we must obey to be successful in dealing with nature, so have philosophers discovered the principles that we must obey if we are to be successful in dealing with people.

Covey does not carry his analogy a step further. But, it must be pointed out that we know that at some places on earth, magnetic fields deviate from true north and gravity does not control behavior in space.  But, in the everyday world in which we live, magnetic fields and gravity can be relied upon.  Likewise, within Covey’s concept of principles as natural laws, it is possible for someone to act in violation of a principle and still succeed, at least at that unique time and in that special place. But, if they persist in violating that principle, they will eventually fail, as they return to normal circumstances. In other words, it is conceivable that unprincipled people may be successful in developing a following for a time in certain circumstances, as we see so often in the real world. But, eventually, when circumstances change, they will fail, be seen as unprincipled and will lose their followers. In order to be successful at most times and in most places, good people, moral people, ethical people, especially Leaders, must act based on principles.

Covey stresses that a Leader’s values must be aligned to correct principles. But, this text has just said that your principles should be based on your values. And, advocated (above), that you should to get your values clarified and prioritized first and, then, find or develop principles that reflect your values to use as the basis for your actions. Both Covey and the recommendations here are saying that values and principles should be aligned, but differ on which comes first.  Covey says people should find principles and use them to shape their values. But, the recommendations here say define and prioritize your values and, then, develop principles that reflect them.  Why the different approaches? Because, Covey's courses and this course are directed at different kinds of people.

As students, mid-grade military and civilian personnel, and intelligence professionals, you are a selected group of people.  It is clear from your educational attainments, choice of career, professional development, and commitment that you have matured with good values.  All you need to do is think about your values to get them in priority order. Thus, there is no problem with your values becoming the starting place for your leadership behavior and actions. But, since you can’t always be thinking and reflecting on those values before you act, and because those values should stay relatively stable over time, you can find some principles that reflect them to use as shorthand guidance for your actions.

But Covey, in his seminars and by his books, is hoping to reach the diverse kinds of people who are now rising to the Leadership of a wide variety of organizations at all levels. Those people are of all ages, from all origins, in all walks of life and are at differing levels of educational and professional development and career attainment. Many of them do not share common values and some may not even have developed strong values. Those who do have good values may not have had the opportunity to recognize them. Thus, they need to be given something to start using now as a basis for deciding and acting as a good person and as a Leader. Furthermore, Covey realizes that values are personal, emotional and, sometimes based on religious teachings.  Thus, telling someone what their values are could offend some and open his views to debate, thereby undermining his efforts. So, he doesn't dwell on morals and doesn’t suggest values.  Rather, he focuses on ethics which emphasizes principles as a code of conduct. Thus, he tells people that there exist certain principles that are widely accepted as guides for leadership behavior and action. He says that all they have to do is to follow them and they’ll be alright. Whether they have the right values or not, if they adhere to correct principles, they’ll reflect correct values for Leadership.

So, Covey prescribes some “master principles” or “meta-principles” which he says are the composite of many other specific principles. In his books he claims that in doing his PhD dissertation, he read all the American self-help literature from 1776 onward and digested the principles he found there into his four meta-principles. They are:

• Trustworthiness at the personal level.
• Trust at the interpersonal level.
• Empowerment at the management level.
• Alignment at the organizational level.

He says that trustworthiness is based on your character and competence. Those things generate peoples’ trust in you. Then, at the interpersonal level you must demonstrate trust in others.  In short, Covey is emphasizing that “Trust is the foundation of Leadership.”  Former Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Richard B. Myers, and his associate Albert C. Pierce emphasize that “…leaders on all levels must be both trustworthy and trusting.  Both qualities are necessary; neither by itself is sufficient.”

 Based on that mutual trust and to sustain it, you should empower the people and give them the opportunity to undertake the efforts of the organization and develop as professionals. Once that has been done, you can then align the organization to a flat and flexible structure. The essence of Covey is; to be a Leader you should build trust through your integrity and other core traits, trust others, demonstrate that trust by empowering the people of the organization and aligning the structure of the organization relying on that mutual trust.

And, that is where Covey stopped with Principle-Centered Leadership. While that was a good start, it soon became clear to Covey that it was not enough. Many people needed more specific principles to guide their life and professional efforts. Thus, he wrote The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People.  While the book is entitled Seven Habits, a quick look at the table of contents reveals that it is a book of “principles” grouped under common “habits” which if adopted will lead to acting on those principles.  Thus, just as Covey implies that by adopting his meta-principles your actions will reflect correct values, he implies that by adopting his seven habits your actions will be based on more specific principles.

Just as Covey provided some “mega principles” as a starting place before offering the readers of  Seven Habits some more specific principles, you may find the following suggestions of a mega principle and a corollary to each useful as a starting place to provide the overall framework for guiding your actions as a person, Leader and professional.  

Some Principles to Live and Lead By

A Personal Principle:

Most importantly, you need a personal principle to insure that, as you live your life, you maintain your personal trait of integrity and to remind yourself of all the values that you believe you need to reinforce that trait.  You should adhere to those values because they will create your character regardless of outside pressure to violate them. That is a tough thing to do and hard to remember to adhere to on a daily basis. Other people, your bosses, and even your own rationalization of the situation will suggest all kinds of reasons why you should violate the personal values that you strongly believe in; “just this once”. Some will even offer significant benefits and rewards if you do. Thus, you need an easily-recalled principle to help you to remember not to do that. How about:

• “Virtue is its own reward”.

Do not deviate from the values that you have established for living with yourself, no matter what the apparent rewards are in the short term. The perceived short-term reward is never worth the agony of not being able to live with yourself later. The long-term reward of, as Aristotle urged, “happiness” or a “well-lived life” with a clear conscience, confidence in your integrity, a spotless character is much better. In defining “virtue”, Dr. Johnson said “Virtue is the surest foundation of reputation and fortune and the first step to greatness is honesty.”  A fine definition but, unfortunately, he used Sir Francis Drake as an example.  While a hero and greatly admired man of the day, a reading of any biography of Drake shows he was not the best example of virtue.

The corollary to this principle, and a caution, should be:

·         “Do it because it’s Right”

A Leadership Principle:

Next you need a leadership for of living with others. You need a principle to insure that you maintain the personal trait of moral courage and caring for others and to remind yourself of all the values you believe will help you do that.   This is probably the most often stated principle for living with others and for Leadership.

• The Golden Rule: “Do to others as you would have them do to you.”

This is also known as “The Principle of Reciprocity.”  So remember the essence of the Golden Rule is “Do….” That means, as a corollary, “Actions Speak Louder Than Words.”

The Golden Rule is a principle that comes most closely to measuring up to Covey's definition of principles as natural or universal laws, applicable at any time, anywhere. Rushwell Kidder cites it when speaking of “Universal Human Values”.  The equivalent of the Golden Rule exists in every major religion and culture,  To check that out, go here____

While the Golden Rule seems to have its origins in religion rather than philosophy it is clearly reflected in the philosophy of Kant.  And in the practical advice of General Aubry Newman who has advised military Leaders:  “Lead others as you would they should lead you if your positions were reversed.”  Senior Chief Keith Lorensen USN, who was aboard the USS Cole when the terrorist bomb went off and who lay buried in the debris until he was pulled out by his sailors, has learned:  “Treat every human being as if he were the one who would save your life.” Remember, as more modern sayings go: “What goes around, comes around.” so you should “Pay it forward.” in everything that you “Do…”   

So, even today when the people you will have the opportunity to Lead are more diverse than they have ever been, the Golden Rule still applies. But, many of them are likely to be of a generation, gender, or race different from you. They will come from different social or cultural backgrounds than you do. Of course, regardless of all that, just like you, all of them want to be treated with honesty, fairness, respect and be given the opportunity for self-fulfillment. Thus, the Golden Rule is applicable.  But, they may want that honesty, fairness, respect and opportunity presented in different ways.  For example, some may want “straight talk”, others may need to have honest criticism soft pedaled.  Some may well prefer respect shown by different forms of address than others.  Some might be more comfortable using different forms of grooming and dress.  They might expect different levels of personal and group conduct to be maintained in the organization. People of lower grade/rank levels may want to be treated with equality in terms of “percs”.  On the other hand, those who work extra hours or on shift work may want extra “percs” in the interest of fairness.  Some will want to be part of the team, others may be loners. Some may hunger for opportunity before they are ready and need to be held back. Others may be reluctant and need urging or pushing. Thus, many of them may not like having done to them exactly what you would like done to you in your position.

Indeed, while the examples deal with groups, if the Leader knows the people of the organizations as individuals, then while treating them all honestly and fairly, with respect and offering all equal opportunity, the Leader can do so in a way that each individual would prefer.

Recently, a number of consultants, among them Michael J. O’Connor and Tony Alessandra, have used the “Platinum Rule” and recommend “Do unto others as they’d like done unto them.” They originally made that recommendation more in the context of businessmen dealing with other businessmen or salesmen dealing with customers than in the context of Leaders dealing with the people of the organization. Nevertheless, the idea and words have relevance for Leaders as well. While everyone in the organization wants to be treated with honesty, respect, fairness and have the opportunity to use their talent, just as you would—which is the point of the Golden Rule—those people of the organization who come from different backgrounds than you, may want that honesty, respect, fairness and opportunity shown and offered in a specific way that is different from the way that you would prefer it to be shown. Thus, before you act, stop to consider the person or people with whom you are dealing and then the words of the Platinum Rule.

• Do to others as they'd like done to them.

But, whether you intend to follow the principle of the Golden Rule or the Golden Rule as modified by the Platinum Rule, remember that there is a corollary:

• Actions speak louder than words.

A Professional Principle:

As an intelligence professional you must not only maintain your personal integrity and deal with people, especially those you Lead, in an appropriate manner by consistently adhering to principles that reflect your personal and organizationally-desired values, but you must also make decisions as a worker or a Leader of the organization to achieve the goals which a task requires.  For the Leader, for example, there are tough decisions regarding how to successfully respond to crisis, or raise morale and stabilize the organization, or how to bring some change to the organization. There is little doubt that, whatever goal you set out to achieve and whatever decisions you make, they will not be met with universal acclaim by all the people of the organization. There will be some who will be adversely affected in one way or another by accomplishing the goal. For example; your bosses or peers may have political or bureaucratic objections, some people in the organization may be required to perform extra work at an inconvenient time, or some may receive a change in job or increased or decreased responsibilities or others may be granted less credit or pay than they think they deserve. Likewise, various others in the Community or those you support will be affected.  The requirements to successfully achieve the goal may not let you follow the Golden Rule or the Platinum Rule and do what you would like to have done to you if your were a follower or do what  needs to be done in away in a way that everyone wants it done to or for them. Yet, in choosing a goal or accomplishing a goal, you also want to retain your integrity and commitment to doing “the right thing”.  Thus, there is a principle for living in the organization that you might consider: 

• The greatest good for the greatest number.

Despite current wisdom, that principle did not originate with Star Trek 2. That was just an example of a Leader enunciating and following a well-established principle of organizational Leadership. Nor did it come from the ancient philosophers or from religious teachings, as the two previously suggested principles.  Rather, it is from a 1789 book Moral Principles for Legislation by the utilitarian philosopher Jeremy Bentham.  His proposals for parliamentary decisionmaking came from the thinking and writings of the French, English and Scottish philosophers during what came to be called the 18^th Century Enlightenment.  These same philosophers also played a significant role in justifying the American Revolution and their ideas still form an underlying  basis for our democratic government. 

In proposing this one principle, Bentham drew on the political thinking of John Stuart Mill that the right action is the one that promotes human well-being and the moral theories of the Scottish thinker Frances Hutcheson who postulated that;

The moral worth of an action is determined by its outcome in terms of happiness for the greatest number.

But, note, in his principle, Bentham changed the word “happiness” to “good” which is closer to the original Aristotelian meaning of “human flourishing” and Cicero’s “good life”.

That statement has unfortunately often been interpreted in a short hand way as suggesting that “the ends justify the means”.  That is a much-maligned principle that many of us have been warned to avoid because so many others have used their stated intention to achieve worthy goals to justify the immoral or unethical means used to achieve them. For example, history is replete with national political Leaders who used the worthy goal of patriotism to justify the unworthy ends of witchhunts; or the worthy goal of nationalism to justify the unworthy end of ethnic cleansing. Or, at the more pertinent level of intelligence; when political Leaders used the worthy goal of a “peace dividend” to slash intelligence budgets and call for drastic down-sizing and hiring freeze throughout the Intelligence Community.  Subsequently, Community Leaders’ worthy goal of maintaining capability despite those cuts was to be achieved by “doing more with less.”   Most recently, as Ron Susskind has pointed out:

The traditional warning about the “ends justify the means” carries a corollary.  Without clear attainable ends, means have a way of becoming unbound, improvised, born of dictates of the “gut”, unexamined assumptions. [Many of the actions taken in the Global War on Terror] …are all means that, whatever their advertised value, strike at the nation’s character.  And sadly give comfort to our enemies.  

To avoid such an inappropriate use of the principle, a deeper understanding of the philosophy which gave rise to government thinking is needed.  As American thinkers, political Leaders and founders of our nation understood, in addition to the foregoing principle, there was also a “harm principle” that a Leader’s decisions should “do no harm”  and a “social contract principle” that a Leader only ruled “with the “consent of the governed” so that if a Leader’s rule was tyranny, then revolution was justified.  And, also that Leader’s decisions must give “a decent respect to the opinions of mankind” so that “Ethics must involve moral ends and means.”

Thus, in keeping with a fuller understanding, when making an organizational decision following the principle of “The greatest good for the greatest number.”, a Leader must also try to insure that the decision does the least harm and that it has wide consent of the various stakeholders in the organization.  If that is not done, then there is likely to be a bureaucratic revolution by one of the parties affected by the decision.  Therefore, organizational decisions must be based on decisionmaking  by “consequentialism”—i.e., when faced with a choice of courses of action and wanting to do the “right thing”,  one must first consider the likely consequences of potential actions.  That means choosing the decision that will maximize  the “happiness” or benefit for the majority of affected stakeholders but minimize the “harm” to others and, thereby, gain the “consent” of the followers themselves, the organization and those the organization supports.

Thus, when you are making a decision and considering what is the “Greatest Good for the Greatest Number”, the corollary should also be:

·         “Consider the Consequences.”

As Army Major Charles A. Pfaff points out:

When officers attempt to balance the demands of morality with the demands of the profession, they must consider the consequences of their decision and the rules and principles that govern the profession….

Specific Values and Principles

The foregoing categories of values have provided a list of specific values from which you can draw those that you believe are most appropriate for you as a person, Leader and professional.  The foregoing broad principles should guide your overall actions in as a person, Leader and professional, suggesting which specific values and associated principles are appropriate.

It is up to you to go further and select the specific values and associated principles that you believe are appropriate for your life, level of leadership and professional work. As a person of integrity, an aspiring Leader and  intelligence professional some examples might be:

-As a person

          --Value: Honesty

--Principle: Don’t deceive myself or others about who I am or my beliefs or capabilities.

-As a Leader

          --Value: Humility

--Principle: Don’t take myself too seriously.

Openly attribute my personal success and organizational success to the efforts of others.

-As a professional

          --Value: Persistence

          --Principle: Don’t give up, keep at the effort until success is achieved.

You need such values along with principles that reflect them to guide your everyday actions.  You just can’t “Let your conscience be your guide.”  For a person sure of your character that may be tempting principle.  But, the existence of conscience and, if it exists, the part of the brain that produces it has not been proven.  Further, what causes conscience is ambiguous.  Thus, before you act, check to make sure what you are listening to is your conscience.  It might be your ego, your dreams of glory, your greed, your self-indulgence. The human mind seems capable of rationalizing anything. The modern practically trained but eccentric philosopher, Ludwig Willgenstein has pointed out “Nothing is so difficult as not deceiving oneself.”

Habits

Aristotle referred two types of virtues—virtue of thought and virtue of character.  Virtue of thought arises from teaching and reflection—i.e., you can choose to have good values.  But, virtue of character results from habit—no matter how good your values are, you cannot be a person of character unless you repeatedly choose to act on them until doing so becomes a habit.  Again, “Actions speak louder than words.”  We are what we repeatedly do.

Former Senator Dan Coats in a speech once said:

Character cannot be summoned at the moment of crisis if it has been squandered by years of compromise and rationalization...Habit is the daily battleground of character.

Likewise, President Ronald Reagan said:

The character that takes command in moments of crucial choices has already been determined by a thousand other choices made earlier in seemingly unimportant moments.  It has been determined by all the “little” choices of years past---by all those times when the voice of conscience was at war with the voice of temptation…whispering that it really doesn’t matter.”  It has been determined by all the day-to-day decisions made when life seemed easy and crises seemed far away—the decisions that, piece by piece, bit by bit, developed habits of discipline or of laziness; habits of self-sacrifice or self-indulgence; habits of duty and honor and integrity or dishonor and shame.

 Covey says that;

• “Habits are behaviors we repeat so often that they become second nature.”
• “Habits are learned, not inherited.”
• “Habits are powerful, often unconscious patterns.”
• “Habits express our character and produce our results.

Stephen Covey, just as in his writings he sets forth general principles and says, that if one follows them, they will have good values;  in his book The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People he sets forth seven habits and says that if people develop them, they will reflect good principles.  Many have found this process useful in acquiring good values, finding appropriate principles and developing good habits to live and lead by.

As, Colonel, (Later General and Commandant of the Marine Corps) Mike Hagee, USMC , said when writing about the US Naval Academy Character Development Program

Good ethical choices do not just happen, they are the product of wisdom and virtue turned into habit by education, patience and thought.
Ethics is concerned with character which is developed by rigorous education and fixed by virtuous habit.
Ethical development is not about reading a book, going to class, or listening to a lecture. It is about developing habits.

Thus, having identified and prioritized your values as a person and for dealing with others, especially as a Leader and having done the research and thinking to develop principles to guide your actions in accordance with those values, you should make acting on those Principles a habit. This is not a new idea.  By way of summary, consider what Harriet Beecher Stowe had Sam, a slave say, in Uncle Tom’s Cabin:

“I’s persistent...and sticks up to conscience and holds on to principles. Yes, principles...whats principles go fur, if we isn’t persistent, I wan ter know? Dis her ‘sistency ‘s a thing what ain’t seed into very clear by most anybody.  Now yer see when a feller stands up fer a thing one day and night, de contrar de next, folks sees- and naturally enough dey ses - he ain’t persistent... Yes indeed …I has principles and I sticks to ‘em like forty - jest anything I thinks is principle, I goes in to ‘t.  I wouldn’t mind if they burnt me ‘live, I’d walk right up to de stake, I would, say I comes to shed my blood fur my principles,  fur my country, fur der grt interests of s’siety.”

Good advice for intelligence and national security Leaders.

But, as General Carl Mundy USMC  told a U.S. Naval Institute ethics panel; “Principles are a guide for the intelligent and a crutch for the imbecile.” Sometimes, you face circumstances when you cannot just respond by habit and blindly follow your espoused principles.

A good example of someone who adhered to that philosophy was Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson considered himself to be a man of principle. He once said “Oh that our principal men be men of principle”.  Yet scholars and biographers have found many inconsistencies and contradictions between Jefferson’s espoused principles in his personal letters and formal writings and his personal, political and presidential actions.  This has given rise to accusations of hypocrisy and even duplicity on his part. But, Jefferson knew when to adhere to principle and when to abandon principle and make decisions that were the right thing to do when necessary for the good of the nation. In an attempt to restore national harmony after a bitter and decisive political campaign, in his first inaugural address Jefferson said:

“Every difference of opinion is not a difference of principle.  We have called by different names brethren of the same principle.  We are all Republicans, we are all Federalists.

As Secretary of State and Vice President, he had continually opposed the creation of a sea-going Navy and even had President John Adams and Congress pass a law so that he could disband the Navy upon taking office as President. Yet, soon thereafter, he considered the consequences for the nation’s economy of not acting and, therefore, sent Adam’s sea-going Navy to the Mediterranean to fight the Barbary pirates.  Likewise, he continually espoused opposition to a strong Presidency and believed that the seat of democratic power was in Congress and with the people by referendum.  Yet, after considering the consequences, of not seizing the opportunity to make the Louisiana Purchase, he said: “It is incumbent on those who except great charges to risk themselves on great occasions…to lose our country by a scrupulous adherence to written laws would be to lose the law itself.”  And so entered into the arrangement without reference to Congress and in secret from the people.

In the foregoing Jefferson examples, the decisions to go against his professed principles and perform “selfless service” for the nation were probably relatively easy. He was, after all, a practical politician just like former Speaker of the House, Everett Dirksen who once said: “I am a man of fixed and unbending principles, the first of which is to be flexible at all times.”  In other cases, however, even the most principled people and Leaders sometimes face tough decisions between adhering to their espoused personal values, or doing their duty to the people of the organization, or Leading the organization in a way that gets the job done.  In such cases, ethical decisionmaking is required.

Ethical Decisionmaking

William Nolte, a career intelligence professional who served in a variety of community agencies in senior positions insists that:

A highly developed ethical sense is critical for those who serve in the intelligence services; at the risk of exaggeration, it may be the most critical for those who serve in counterintelligence.

The first thing to understand about ethical decisionmaking is that it does not involve deciding between right and wrong. We all know how to do that, it is easy. There are a number of tests.

• The legal test: Is it legal?
• The stench test: Does it smell right?
• The front page test: Would you like to see it reported there?.
• The Mother test: What would she say if she knew?

And, most of all, if you have thought about your values, developed some principles and made acting on those principles a habit, you will instantly know that something is right or wrong for you. 

Rather, ethical decisionmaking is required to resolve moral ambiguity or ethical dilemmas between your own strongly held values and habituated principles for living, for Leading and working in the profession and the values and principles advocated by others or the organization itself.  Ethical decisionmaking is required to decide between two or more “right things to do”.

Continuing to use Thomas Jefferson as an example, while his naval and Louisiana Purchase decisions may have been relatively easy, when it came to slavery, he faced moral ambiguity and an ethical dilemma. He espoused the principle that “all men are created equal” and believed that political actions should be based on the philosophy that a Leader could only rule with consent of the governed and should do no harm. Yet, being a slaveowner violated all of those principles.  Should he do the right thing for himself and continue to hold the slaves who worked on his estate in servitude in order to keep the estate prosperous and his local reputation and political standing solid?  Or should he do what was right for the slaves and offer them their freedom while also keeping them employed and cared for in the short term until his death. Or should slavery be abolished for the long term good of the slaves despite the short term consequences for the freed?  Or, should slavery be maintained so that the southern states would vote in favor of the Constitution and the new nation would remain unified?  Jefferson faced an ethical dilemma of his time and made his decisions in the context of his time.  To modern critics his decisions have tarnished his reputation as a Leader.  But, once one makes an ethical decision, one must live with the results.  That is why preparing to make well-founded ethical decisions is critical for a Leader.

On a more modern, bureaucratic and personal level, for example:  In some instances you will find that the important values and habituated principles that you hold most dearly will come into conflict with important principles of the organization, such as obeying orders, supporting your Leader, or protecting the reputation of the organization. Or you may find that the guidance of seniors or the actual procedures of the organization are in conflict with the regulations or the espoused principles of the organization, service, profession or what the nation or society at large expects from someone in your position. What is the right thing to do?  Should you obey the wishes and pressures of the boss, the usual ways of the organization, or should you act in accordance with your own values and principles or in accordance with the regulations or higher standards of the profession and do what you believe is right?  Further, will you do so, even at the risk of being seen as a non-team player, losing your job or ruining your career?   Or, on a different but still important level, you may believe that the allotted and approved quantity and quality of the effort being undertaken on a project does not meet the standards of the organization or the needs of the customer.  What is the right thing to do, go with the flow and get the job done or put in more time and effort? Even at the expense of missing a deadline or failing to complete other projects?

Certainly, in any of these cases, the right thing is not what is easiest or best for the Leader personally.  It may be what the seniors in the organization think is right or what the culture of the organization deems appropriate or acceptable.    It may be what the people of the organization think is right for them in terms of working conditions or professional welfare, etc.  It may be what the supported organization thinks is right to meet its needs.  All of these are probably good things, all are probably right things, but which is “the” right thing to do? 

-Personal Honesty or Organizational Loyalty? Should I report the inappropriate practices or actions of the organization or the boss, should I be a whistle-blower? Or should I remain loyal to the organization or the boss, help cover up, hope it doesn’t happen again, etc?
-Organizational Standards or Professional Standards ? Should I do this delegated task the way it is usually done around here and the way the boss is pressuring me to do it—i.e., “if they want it bad, they’ll get it bad” —or should I do it to the highest professional standards, even if it takes longer?
-Personal Loyalty or Duty? Should this long-serving, loyal and committed, but less qualified person whom I have known for years be promoted into this important position or should the well-qualified, new comer be promoted?  Even if it brings a personal confrontation and falling out with a friend or   a discrimination suit?
-Short-term good or long term good? Should I organize and focus the organization to respond exclusively to customer requirements and the kinds of intelligence support needed today and gain personal, professional and organizational recognition at the expense of holding some resources back and sustaining basic research that may be needed to support future requirements? Should I do that even though by the time that basic research may be needed, I’ll have moved on to another job?

Which value is most important, which principle should guide your action? You must decide. In such cases you must understand that principles are not a checklist, they are only guidelines for day-to-day actions. They are the basis from which ethical decisionmaking starts. There is no easy answer, no formula for ethical decisionmaking.  Warren Bennis and Noel Tichy emphasize that to make “consistently good judgment calls in the face of ambiguity and conflicting demands” requires “self-knowledge, social network knowledge, organization knowledge and stakeholder knowledge” but it is “…not just a matter of intellect but of character and courage as well.”

As Major Charles Pfaff says about being a person of character:

…being a certain kind of person is just as important to moral leadership as knowing consequences, rules and principles and being able to apply them in ways that serve the profession and the Nation.  This is because consequences and rules can come into conflict. When this happens ethical algorithms based on measuring consequences and applying rules will be insufficient to resolve the tension in a morally appropriate way.  In such instances it will be an officer’s character that will help resolve the conflicts in a consistent, coherent manner.

This does not mean that virtuous officers never consider consequences or rules to determine where their duties lie.  The point is that the virtuous officer has developed the disposition to know how and when to do so in the best possible way.

As Van Wart emphasizes:

Integrating appropriate but differing sets of values may mean hard work for the ethical leader.  It main also mean finding workable compromises that optimize several of the important values.

Thus, if you return to the definitions of “Ethics”, you find the words, “a discipline”, “a system”, a “science”. All of those words suggest that you must have a disciplined and structured approach to making ethical decisions.

You must be able to think critically. Critical thinking involves:

-questioning rather than accepting,
-seeking and weighing evidence on all sides,
-employing logic and a rigorous system of analysis,
-reaching defensible conclusions.

To do so you must consider:

-your personal values and principles,
-organizational values, rules and precepts,
-the intentions and motives of those involved,
-the rights and obligations of those involved,
-the consequences and effects of deciding or acting.

In an attempt to provide guidance for such an approach, Rushworth Kidder of the Institute for Global Ethics offers a system of "Nine Checkpoints for Ethical Decisionmaking".

      -Awareness: Is there a moral or ethical dilemma?
            --What happened? Why is it wrong?
      -Actor: Is it mine to resolve? 
            --Did it happen in my area of responsibility, chain of command, part of the organization?
      -Facts: What are the facts?
            --Document them.
      -Right vs Wrong 
            --Clearly illegal, violates regulations, conflict of interest, harassment, just seems wrong? 
      -What values/principles are involved? 
            --What are your personal priorities, the organizations priorities?
      -Resolution: Rule-based? Care-based? Ends-based? (See below)
      -Is there a third way?
            --Should it be referred to the chain of command, the Inspector General, a hotline?
      -Decide
      -Reflect before you act.

With respect to “resolution” he highlights the need to consider the consequences of the decision and then formulate a decision by choosing to act based on one of the three areas of values and principles.

-He calls making an ethical decision based on your own personal values for living with yourself, “rule-based” ethical decisionmaking. He recommends  rule-based ethical decisions when the most important consideration is upholding a principle and acting in accordance with universal laws or the universal values.
-He calls the category of leadership values for living with others, “care-based”. He recommends making a care-based decision when people are the most important consideration and following the Golden Rule.
-He calls the category of professional values for living with the organization, “ends-based”. He recommends following utilitarianism”— i.e., the greatest good for the greatest number”—when the end results are the most important consideration.

If you have been able to prioritize between the three categories of values and have adopted the three broad principles presented above, that advice is sound and you are well prepared. But, you  may still find that even deciding between which category of values is most important in the situation that you face is difficult.

Summary and Conclusions

There are no easy answers or shortcuts to maintaining your integrity and becoming a person of character. No simple formulae. The only advice that can be given is that you must have developed a systematic, disciplined, structured approach to making such decisions and have practiced using it, so that when it is needed you can use it with speed and confidence.

-First you must know where you stand.

--You must have prioritized your values.
--You must have developed principles to guide your actions.
--And, made acting on those principles a habit.

-Thus, you will be able to decide quickly and confidently when you face a conflict between two of your own important values/principles. 

-But, you must also be able to:

--recognize when you are faced with an ethical dilemma or moral  ambiguity.

--decide between two strongly held opposing principles; yours and those held by another or the organization.

-To practice, start now to think about important ethical issues and learn to:

           --think critically and reason logically about the consequences of opposing rights.

          --balance virtue and idealism with duty and reality.

          --test your thoughts by reflection and private persuasive discussion.

-So that when the time comes you can decide under pressure.

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